von Kai Kupferschmidt [1,2]
Es ist die Lieblingsfarbe der meisten Menschen, doch in der Natur findet sie sich selten, künstlich ist sie nur schwer herzustellen. Umso eifriger arbeiten Wissenschaftler an neuen blauen Pigmenten.
Teil 1: Wie können wir wirklich sicher sein, wo die Farbe Blau Ihren Ursprung hat? Betrachtet man die Geschichte, war es durchwegs ein mühsamer Prozess in den Laboren – oder ein Zufallstreffer.
Reiner Zufall
Seine berühmteste Entdeckung fiel aus heiterem Himmel. Als Festkörperchemiker beim Chemiekonzern Dupont verantwortete Mas Subramanian Hunderte Publikationen und Dutzende Patente. Er hatte einen neuen Supraleiter entdeckt und einen umweltfreundlicheren Weg zur Herstellung der Chemikalie Fluorbenzol gefunden. Nach seinem Wechsel 2006 an die Oregon State University arbeitete er an einem sogenannten Multiferroikum, einem Material mit besonderen elektrischen und magnetischen Eigenschaften, die schnellere Computer ermöglichen sollen. Nach einer Idee von Subramanian mischte deshalb eines Tages der Doktorand Andrew Smith Indiumoxid, Manganoxid und Yttrim-oxid und erhitzte die Mischung im Ofen. Die erhofften Eigenschaften zeigten sich nicht, aber: Es war sehr blau.
von Kai Kupferschmidt [1,2]
Artists have known this fact for a long time. In romanticism, the blue flower was symbol for yearning and the unreachable. Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem about a man who was in search of a blue rose for his beloved: “Half the world I wandered through seeking where such flowers grew.” After his return empty handed his great love has died.
The complexity of the blue blossoms became evident for the first time in 1913. German scientist Richard Willstätter allegedly isolated the blue pigment from cornflowers. It was an anthocyanin, which he named cyanidin. Two years later, he performed the same procedure on red roses and it turned out to be the same molecule. Anthocyanins can change color depending on the acidity of a solution, so Willstätter proposed that roses had a different hue because the pH in their petals was lower than in cornflowers.
This first scientific thesis about blue flowers turned out to be utterly incorrect. It took decades until finally in 2005 an x-ray crystallography confirmed a different statement. A solid blue color is not etablished by cyanidin only. Cornflowers combine six cyanidin molecules with six molecules of a colorless co-pigment, which is arranged around two metal ions – a huge molecule complex that stabilizes the cyanidin molecules and enables the electrons to perform the proper energy transition. “Flowers do weird chemistry to create this kind of blue,” botanist Beverley Glover of Cambridge University in the United Kingdom says.
A few other flowers use the same trick, but most produce a different anthocyanin called delphinidin, which facilitates the blue appearance. It has an additional oxygen atom on one of its rings, which is formed by an enzyme called flavonoid 3’,5’ hydroxylase. The entire family of roses is missing this very enzyme. Thus, delphinidin-producing cannot be created by traditional breeding.
Therefore, Tanaka and his staff counted on genetic engineering. Until 1991, they identified and patented the flavonoid 3’5’-hydroxylase gene in petunias. They planted the gene into carnations and so the production of delphinidin was enforced turning them into a purplish blue. Roses, however, denied the gene. The flower produced delphinidin, to be sure, but no blue pigments.
Tanaka has since tried to cross the genes of various flowers, such as violas with other blue blossoms in order to “decorate” delphinidin chemically, hoping to find the magical combination. Last year he presented hundreds of tiny rose buds which had grown under fluorescent light, a contribution to the development of a new blue color.
Genetic engineering created blue chrysanthemums. Why didn’t it work with roses?
In the meanwhile, a group of Tanaka’s scientists succeeded in creating the one and only blue flower: the blue chrysanthemum. A combination of the flavonoid-3’,5’-hydroxylase gene of the bellflower and a gene that adds a glucose molecule lead to this very success. By means of genetic engineering, the bluest flower the world has ever seen was created. The connection of natural glucose and other pigments with the delphinidin molecule made this happen. This same procedure, however, did not work with roses due to the missing co-pigments and the low pH-value.
However, Tanaka has not given up. He continues experimenting with genes of blue flowers, like from gentian to modify the delphinidin and genes from the genus Torenia that produces co-pigments. In a nod to Willstätter, he is even trying to alter the pH-value of rose blossoms. Tanaka is confident he will develop bluer roses before his retirement, only 5 years away. However, almost thirty years of research also made him more careful: “you never know how blue they will be.”
By Kai Kupferschmidt [1,2]
The favorite color of most people, however hardly common among animals and plants. It is very difficult to produce artificially. Consequently, scientists are eagerly working on creating new blue pigments.
The food industry is desperate. How can they be successful finding natural blue ingredients, which are long lasting and resistant to heat as well as light?
A decade ago, Cathie Martin, scientist John-Innes-Center, created a genetic engineered tomato, which produces anthocyanin. This fruit possesses healthy antioxidants and its pigments dye vegetables in a darkish violet blue. Martin therefore had the idea to color other foods blue as well.
A natural blue is not very common among food. In former times, a synthetic ultramarine was used to change the yellowish color of sugarcane into a bright white. Blue food colorings are used for sweets, icings and beverages. They are also used for mixing other colors. “We need blue to produce all colors of the spectrum,” says Richard van Breemen, a chemist at Oregon State University who works with natural products.
The selection is limited at the moment. There are two synthetic food colors approved in the U.S.: brilliant blue also known as Blue No. 1 made out of char tar and Blue No 2, which is gained, from a synthetic indigo blue. Another synthetic blue is available in the EU, called patent blue V. It gives the Curacao Liqueur its blue color, for example.
The consumer, however, prefers natural ingredients. Companies like Mars and Pepsi have been trying to substitute synthetic colors with little success, though. “One of the big disappointments with the color blue is that it is very, very difficult to combine natural colors with compounds that can be used to color food," says Martin. The only natural blue colorant is a raw extract of spirulina algae, which was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2014 for use in confectionery and other foods. However, it is not very stable and blue. “It’s a terrible blue”, she says, “actually it’s green”. And the color might change or even disappear when food is baked, cooked or exposed to light on supermarket shelves.
Van Breemen therefore had been looking for better candidates in the world of microbes. He assumed to find a more stable blue in an extreme environment such as the hot springs in Yellowstone Park or in the ocean. But he could not find any suitable blue pigments. Many substances turned out to be chemical weapons of the microbes. Many substances turned out to be chemical weapons of the microbes. They rather should be used as antibiotics than food colorings.
Plants may be the better choice, especially as they offer a wide range of active ingredients to choose from. Although forming pigments on the basis of delphinine most blue blossoms vary the molecule adding various chemical groups. Cathie Martin hopes to find a stable food coloring in the blue clitoris, a butterfly flower. The beautiful blue flowers give the Malaysian rice dish Nasi Kerabu its colour.
Martin first bought clitoral flowers online at Amazon, but soon stocks ran out. Recently she received three bulging bags of flowers from Saudi Arabia. A scientist who had visited her laboratory had collected these in the wild. A mixture of anthocyanin from the blue clitoris has already proven successful for some food applications, says Martin. Researchers in her lab have used it to make bluish icing for cupcakes and donuts as well as blue ice cream.
But these pigments are also volatile. "Most blue anthocyanin have a half-life of about 24 hours. And we are talking about something that lasts at least three months," says Martin. So their search continues.
A bluish doughnut frosting developed in Cathie Martin's lab contains a mix of anthocyanins found in butterfly pea flowers.
References:
[1] Das Blaue Wunder, German Newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung, Weekend Edition, Knowledge Chapter, July 6. / 7, 2019
[2] In Search of Blue, By Kai Kupferschmidt, Science Magazine published by AAAS, May 2nd 2019, https://www.aaas.org/
[3] Blau - Reise durch faszinierende Farbe, Kai Kupferschmidt,
https://www.amazon.de/Blau-Reise-durch-faszinierende-Farbe/dp/3455006396